Travel in the middle ages
It was obviously more difficult to travel long distances in the middle ages than in our own time. That, however, does not mean people didn’t travel! War and Crusade, politics and diplomacy, pilgrimage, trade—all these and more were reasons for people from all stations to move around, within Europe and beyond. Here we’ll focus on the types of travel Machaut undertook; for more general information, check the list of further reading below.
As an important member of John of Bohemia’s administration, Machaut would have travelled extensively with the king. Kings at this time generally did not have a settled court, but rather moved constantly, both for variety and because it was important to be visibly in control of the kingdom, to meet with subjects and to receive the homage of vassals. John, who hailed from Luxembourg and spent much of his time in France, therefore regularly had to take long journeys to his territories in what are now Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland. He also journeyed as far as Lithuania, to support the Teutonic Knights who were engaged in the forced conversion of pagans. He also likely travelled with the French court, which according to one account moved on average 60-80 times per year in the early fourteenth century (Newman 7).
At the core of the European transportation network were the surviving Roman roads, though they were often heavily worn. New roads were built as well, especially from the thirteenth century. Given the inevitable damage of weather and use, it was in many ways easier to travel long distances by horseback than by cart, carriage, or other wheeled vehicle. Men in particular would only ride in a wagon if old or sick—and a wealthy person who could not ride would likely travel in a litter, borne by two horses. Many who did not have means travelled on foot. Pack animals and luggage carts would slow down a group and create additional trouble and expense.
Monasteries and other settlements with hospices or hospitals where pilgrims and others travelers could spend the night gradually increased, as did private inns and hostelries, at least until the advent of plague in the mid-fourteenth century. Nobles could also seek hospitality from their peers, and they would often send harbingers ahead to arrange their lodgings for the night to come. Where there was no indoor accommodation, or where the group was too large for the indoor facilities, travelers might sleep in the open air. Given the dangers of crime, however, individual travelers often sought to join a group, mostly for protection but also for company; the pilgrims who come together to share their journey in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales are a good example.
Speed depended on many factors, including the quality of roads, weather, and the nature of the travelling party. One estimate suggests that a small group with good horses could move as much as 30 miles in a single day. On the other hand, a larger group that included pack animals, a cart, or travelers on foot might make only half that distance. This would not, however, include rest days, bad weather or roads, natural obstacles such as rivers and mountains, and so forth. According to one account, Richard II of England travelled 70 miles in a single night, but this was extraordinary, and he had access to a change of horse. (Labarge 16) Raymond Cazelles mentions that in September 1332 John travels from Prague to Paris, a distance of 900 kilometers as the crow flies, in two weeks, while Cazelles and Michel Pauly outline a trip from Prague to Luxembourg in 1321 that averaged 80 kilometers (about 49 miles) for each travel day (Cazelles 100-1 and Pauly 16; distances are approximate, based on Mapquest, and rest days are not specifically indicated):
23 June 1321: leaves Prague; arrives Aschaffenburg 15 July (292 miles)
15 July 1321: Aschaffenburg to Frankfurt (28 miles)
16 July: Frankfurt to Mainz (25 miles)
17 July: Mainz to Bacharach (31 miles)
18-19 July: Bacharach to Trier (70 miles)
by 14 August: Trier to Arlon (50 miles)
21 August: Arlon to Luxembourg (17 miles)
Since John of Bohemia’s trips to the east were long journeys, designed to show his power, he probably travelled with an extensive retinue. As an example of what that last might involve, consider a trip made by Thomas Becket as chancellor of England in 1188, described by Margaret Wade Labarge. Becket travelled with as many as 200 household members on horseback, as well as chariots and twelve packhorses carrying everything from chapel materials and books to exchequer records to clothes, food and drink, and gifts. Grooms and squires might lead horses on foot, while foot servants and hunting dogs walked ahead. Such a party could not travel quickly, but the very stateliness of their arrival would attract notice.
Where possible, it was often easier to travel by water. The Seine, Rhine, Loire, Rhone, Moselle, and other rivers were major European highways. Where seafaring boats could not go, narrow-draft barges could. Norbert Ohler reports that one could travel from the North Sea to the Mediterranean by way of the Rhine, Aare, and Rhone rivers—and, of the 1243 total miles, only about 18-1/2 were not navigable (32-33). Canals were also created to link rivers and streams. When the water was too low, the boat and its cargo would be carried or dragged. Given the small size of these boats, travelers usually spent the night on the riverbank. A barge, according to Olher, could travel down the Rhone from Lyon to Avignon (125 miles) in two to five days (34). Of course, going upstream was more difficult: sails or oars were possible, or a boat or barge could be towed upstream.
Machaut would have had access to fairly good travelling resources. Indeed, Charles, king of Navarre, gave him a haguenee preuse (trusty hackney) in 1361 (cited Earp 38). Hackneys were riding horses, known for a comfortable seat and great endurance. It seems likely that this was the kind of horse Machaut would have ridden on his long journeys with John, and the fact that he received such a horse as a gift as late as 1361 suggests that he continued to travel while in semi-retirement in Reims.
For further reading:
Labarge, Margaret Wade. Medieval Travellers. New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983.
Newman, Paul B. Travel and Trade in the Middle Ages. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2011.
Olher, Norbert. The Medieval Traveller. Translated by Caroline Hillier. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1989. (originally published as Reisen im Mittelalter, Artemis Verlag, 1986)
Pauly, Michel. “Une itinéraire européen.” In Un itinéraire européen: Jean l’Aveugle, comte de Luxembourg et roi de Bohême, 1296-1346, 16. Edited by Michel Margue. Publication du CLUDEM 12. Brussels: Crédit Communale and CLUDEM, 1996.
As an important member of John of Bohemia’s administration, Machaut would have travelled extensively with the king. Kings at this time generally did not have a settled court, but rather moved constantly, both for variety and because it was important to be visibly in control of the kingdom, to meet with subjects and to receive the homage of vassals. John, who hailed from Luxembourg and spent much of his time in France, therefore regularly had to take long journeys to his territories in what are now Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland. He also journeyed as far as Lithuania, to support the Teutonic Knights who were engaged in the forced conversion of pagans. He also likely travelled with the French court, which according to one account moved on average 60-80 times per year in the early fourteenth century (Newman 7).
At the core of the European transportation network were the surviving Roman roads, though they were often heavily worn. New roads were built as well, especially from the thirteenth century. Given the inevitable damage of weather and use, it was in many ways easier to travel long distances by horseback than by cart, carriage, or other wheeled vehicle. Men in particular would only ride in a wagon if old or sick—and a wealthy person who could not ride would likely travel in a litter, borne by two horses. Many who did not have means travelled on foot. Pack animals and luggage carts would slow down a group and create additional trouble and expense.
Monasteries and other settlements with hospices or hospitals where pilgrims and others travelers could spend the night gradually increased, as did private inns and hostelries, at least until the advent of plague in the mid-fourteenth century. Nobles could also seek hospitality from their peers, and they would often send harbingers ahead to arrange their lodgings for the night to come. Where there was no indoor accommodation, or where the group was too large for the indoor facilities, travelers might sleep in the open air. Given the dangers of crime, however, individual travelers often sought to join a group, mostly for protection but also for company; the pilgrims who come together to share their journey in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales are a good example.
Speed depended on many factors, including the quality of roads, weather, and the nature of the travelling party. One estimate suggests that a small group with good horses could move as much as 30 miles in a single day. On the other hand, a larger group that included pack animals, a cart, or travelers on foot might make only half that distance. This would not, however, include rest days, bad weather or roads, natural obstacles such as rivers and mountains, and so forth. According to one account, Richard II of England travelled 70 miles in a single night, but this was extraordinary, and he had access to a change of horse. (Labarge 16) Raymond Cazelles mentions that in September 1332 John travels from Prague to Paris, a distance of 900 kilometers as the crow flies, in two weeks, while Cazelles and Michel Pauly outline a trip from Prague to Luxembourg in 1321 that averaged 80 kilometers (about 49 miles) for each travel day (Cazelles 100-1 and Pauly 16; distances are approximate, based on Mapquest, and rest days are not specifically indicated):
23 June 1321: leaves Prague; arrives Aschaffenburg 15 July (292 miles)
15 July 1321: Aschaffenburg to Frankfurt (28 miles)
16 July: Frankfurt to Mainz (25 miles)
17 July: Mainz to Bacharach (31 miles)
18-19 July: Bacharach to Trier (70 miles)
by 14 August: Trier to Arlon (50 miles)
21 August: Arlon to Luxembourg (17 miles)
Since John of Bohemia’s trips to the east were long journeys, designed to show his power, he probably travelled with an extensive retinue. As an example of what that last might involve, consider a trip made by Thomas Becket as chancellor of England in 1188, described by Margaret Wade Labarge. Becket travelled with as many as 200 household members on horseback, as well as chariots and twelve packhorses carrying everything from chapel materials and books to exchequer records to clothes, food and drink, and gifts. Grooms and squires might lead horses on foot, while foot servants and hunting dogs walked ahead. Such a party could not travel quickly, but the very stateliness of their arrival would attract notice.
Where possible, it was often easier to travel by water. The Seine, Rhine, Loire, Rhone, Moselle, and other rivers were major European highways. Where seafaring boats could not go, narrow-draft barges could. Norbert Ohler reports that one could travel from the North Sea to the Mediterranean by way of the Rhine, Aare, and Rhone rivers—and, of the 1243 total miles, only about 18-1/2 were not navigable (32-33). Canals were also created to link rivers and streams. When the water was too low, the boat and its cargo would be carried or dragged. Given the small size of these boats, travelers usually spent the night on the riverbank. A barge, according to Olher, could travel down the Rhone from Lyon to Avignon (125 miles) in two to five days (34). Of course, going upstream was more difficult: sails or oars were possible, or a boat or barge could be towed upstream.
Machaut would have had access to fairly good travelling resources. Indeed, Charles, king of Navarre, gave him a haguenee preuse (trusty hackney) in 1361 (cited Earp 38). Hackneys were riding horses, known for a comfortable seat and great endurance. It seems likely that this was the kind of horse Machaut would have ridden on his long journeys with John, and the fact that he received such a horse as a gift as late as 1361 suggests that he continued to travel while in semi-retirement in Reims.
For further reading:
Labarge, Margaret Wade. Medieval Travellers. New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1983.
Newman, Paul B. Travel and Trade in the Middle Ages. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2011.
Olher, Norbert. The Medieval Traveller. Translated by Caroline Hillier. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1989. (originally published as Reisen im Mittelalter, Artemis Verlag, 1986)
Pauly, Michel. “Une itinéraire européen.” In Un itinéraire européen: Jean l’Aveugle, comte de Luxembourg et roi de Bohême, 1296-1346, 16. Edited by Michel Margue. Publication du CLUDEM 12. Brussels: Crédit Communale and CLUDEM, 1996.
View John of Luxembourg 1321 in a larger map